National Movements

When all these regional wars of independence were unsuccessful, Indonesian leaders started a more organized struggle against Dutch colonialism known as Indonesia's national movements for independence.
This period was pioneered by the founding of the "Boedi Oetomo" (Noble Conduct) movement on the 20th of May 1908, which was initially designed as a cultural association for Indonesian intellectuals, turned into politics, stimulated by Japan's victory over Russia in 1901, which accelerated modern national movements throughout Indonesia. The founder of "Boedi Oetomo" was Dr. Wahidin Sudirohusodo, supported by Dr. Soetomo, Gunawan and Suradji.
In 1911, the Society of Moslem Entrepreneurs "Sarekat Dagang Islam" was founded by Haji Samanhudi and others which was aimed at encouraging and sponsoring the interest of Indonesian business within the Dutch East Indies. However, in 1912 this middle class entrepreneurial organization turned into a political party and called them "Sarekat Islam" led by HOS Tjokroaminoto, Haji Agus Salim and others.
In 1911, a Progressive Moslem Organization "Muhammadiyah" was established by Hajji Dahlan in Yogyakarta aimed at social and economy reforms.
In December 1912, an Indonesian Party "Partai Indonesia" was founded by Dr. Douwes Dekker, later named Setyabudhi, with Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo and Ki Hajar Dewantoro (Suwardi Suryaningrat) striving for complete independence for Indonesia from the Dutch. These three leaders of the party were later exiled by the Dutch colonial government of the Dutch East Indies in 1913. In 1914, Communism was introduced in the Dutch East Indies by Dutch nationals, Sneevliet, Baars, and Brandsteder.

In May 1920, Sarekat Islam was split into a right and left wing faction, the latter of which formed the Indonesian Communist Party "Partai Komunis Indonesia" (PKI) under the leadership of Semaun, Darsono, Alimin, Muso and others.

The Powerless People's Council "Volksraad"

In 1916, the Sarekat Islam Party held its first congress in Bandung and advocated in its resolution self-government for Indonesia in cooperation with the Dutch. When the Sarekat Islam demanded the Dutch Colonial Government of Dutch East Indies for minimum social legislation in the colony, this demand was countered by the Dutch by setting up powerless People's Council named the "Volksraad" in 1918 which was purely of an advisory nature to Dutch colonial rulers. The Indonesian representation within the council was by indirect election through regional councils, whereas part of the number of its members consisted of appointed colonial officials. It later developed into a semi-legislative assembly in which body some Indonesian prominent nationalist leaders, such as Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo, HOS Tjokroaminoto, Abdul Muis, Dr. GSSJ Ratulangi, MH Thamrin, Wiwoho, Sutardjo Kartohadikoesoemo, Dr. Radjiman, Soekardjo, and others, were members of mentioned body.

Under pressure of social unrest in the Netherlands at the end of World War I in Europe, the Dutch pledged to the Indonesians to grant self government to Indonesia known as the "November" pledge which was never realized.

Besides the "Volksraad" there was another body called the "Raad van Indie" whose members were appointed by the Ducth. Achmad Jayadiningrat and Sujono were among the very few Indonesian members of the "Raad van Indie."

Restrictions of Civil Liberties

Worsening economic conditions and increasing labor strikes in the Dutch East Indies prompted the Dutch colonial government in 1923 to put severe restrictions on Indonesian civil liberties and made further amendment to the colonial constitutional law and penal codes. Restrictions were put on the freedoms of assembly, speech and expression in writing.

Further Growth of Indonesian Organizations

Despite those restrictions by the Dutch colonial government, in 1922, an organization aimed at promoting Indonesian national education calling themselves "Taman Siswa" was founded on the 3rd of July of mentioned year by Ki Hadjar Dewantoro.
In 1942, the Indonesian Students Association "Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Indonesia" was founded by Dr. Mohammad Hatta, Dr. Sukiman, and others. This student's association had put more leverage to the Indonesian Nationalist Independence Movements in Indonesia in general.

In 1926 till 1927, Communist revolts, led by the Indonesian Communist Party "PKI" broke against Dutch colonial rule. In November 1926 it rebelled in West Java and in January 1927 in West Sumatra. After Dutch suppression of these communist rebellions many Indonesian non-communist nationalist leaders were exiled to Tanah Merah, which the Dutch called "Boven Digul" in Papua. Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo was exiled to Bandaneira.

In February 1927, a federation of all Indonesian parties was called into being by Dr. Mohammad Hatta, called the "Perhimpunan Politik Kebangsaan Indonesia" (PPKI). Dr. Mohammad Hatta and Achmad Soebardjo and some other members of the federation attended the First International Congress of League Against Imperialism and Colonial Oppression in Brussels together with Jawaharlal Nehru and many other prominent nationalist leaders from Asia and Africa.

In July 1927, Ir. Soekarno, Sartono and others formed the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), which adopted the Bahasa Indonesia as the official language. It exerted a militant policy of non-cooperation with the Dutch colonial authorities on the basis of a permanent conflict of interest between Indonesian nationalism and Dutch colonialism.

In the same year an all Indonesia's Nationalist Movement was set up among the Indonesian youth and women replacing earlier established youth organizations based on regionalism, such as the "Young Java," "Young Sumatra," and Young Ambon," etc.

On the 28th of October 1928, during the Second Indonesian Young Congress held in Jakarta, a pledge was made by the Indonesian Youth to strive for "One Nation," "One Motherland," and "One Language." This youth pledge is today still commemorated every year. "The Indonesia Raya" song, which later became Indonesia's National Anthem, was for the first time introduced at the Second Indonesian Youth Congress by its composer, Wage Rudolf Supratman.

Meanwhile, the Technical University College was set up in Bandung in 1920. The Law University College was opened in Jakarta, replacing the former Law School in 1924. The Medical University College, replacing the former Medical School was opened in August, 1927. All of these University Colleges were later united into the University of Indonesia in 1946 during Indonesia's independence.

In 1929, Dutch colonial authorities in the Dutch East Indies concerned about the developing national conscience and the increasing urge for independence by the Indonesian arrested PNI leader, Ir. Soekarno in December of mentioned year which caused great discontent among the Indonesians.

Meanwhile in 1930, the world suffered from an economic and monetary crisis, which had a great impact in the Indies being a raw material producing colony of the Dutch. A balanced budget policy for the colony was strictly carried out detrimental to the economic and educational life of the Indonesians. Other leaders of the PNI, Gatot Mangkupradja and Maskun Supriadinata were tried in court on charges of "plotting" against the colonial
regime. Ir. Soekarno was released in September 1931 but again exiled in August 1933 and remained in Dutch custody till the Japanese invasion in 1942.
In January 1931, Dr. Soetomo aimed at elevating the status of the Indonesian people on the basis of nationalism founded the Indonesian Unity Party, the "Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia." In April of the same year, the PNI was abandoned and followed by the founding of another party, the Indonesia Party or "Partai Indonesia" by Sartono, LLM, based on nationalism and Indonesia's self-supporting movement. In the same year, Sutan Syahrir founded the Indonesian National Education Group or "Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia," abbreviated as the new PNI, which was joined by Dr. Mohammad Hatta.
In 1933, a mutiny broke out on the Dutch warship "Zeven Provincien," the Indonesian nationalists were held responsible for this. In 1934, Sutan Syahrir, Dr. Mohammad Hatta and other nationalist leaders were arrested by Dutch colonial authorities and sent into exile till 1942.
In 1935, under the leadership of Dr. Soetomo a merger of the "Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia" organization with the "Boedi Oetomo" was brought about, aimed at striving for the independence of Greater Indonesia, the "Parindra."

Indonesian Petition

In July 1936, Sutardjo submitted to the "Volksraad" the Indonesian petition calling for greater autonomy for Indonesia. This petition was flatly rejected by the Dutch dominated "Volksraad."
In 1937, Dr. AK Gani founded the Indonesian People's Movement, "Gerakan Rakyat Indonesia," which was based on the principles of Indonesian nationalism, social independence and Indonesia's self-supporting efforts.
In 1939, the All Indonesia Political Federation "GAPI" called for the establishment of Indonesia's full-fledged parliament, which was flatly rejected by the Dutch government in Holland in 1940. They also demanded an Indonesian National Military Service in order to defend Indonesia in times of war. This demand was also rejected in spite of the grave international situation, which proceeded the outbreak of the Second World War, the situation of which called for fundamental and progressive reforms in colonies and dependencies in Asia in general.

Japanese Occupation

After the Japanese attacks of Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, Japanese Armed Forces went southwards and occupied several Southeast Asian countries. After the British defeated Singapore, Japanese forces invaded the Dutch East Indies whereupon the Dutch colonial army surrendered to the Japanese in March 1942. Ir. Soekarno was released from his detention. The Japanese introduced Japan's "Great East Asia Co-Prosperity Idea," which became unpopular in Indonesia as the Indonesians realized that Japanese occupation was just an alternate colonialism substituting Dutch colonialism. For the sake of furthering the course of Indonesia's independence however Ir. Soekarno and Dr. Mohammad Hatta were giving limited assistance to Japanese occupation authorities on the surface while other Indonesian nationalist leaders went underground to stage insurrection all over Java, such as in Blitar (East Java), Tasikmalaya and Indramayu (West Java), Sumatra and Kalimantan.
Due to the hardships suffered by the Japanese in waging the Pacific war caused by interruptions of their supply lines and by Indonesian insurrections, the Japanese occupation forces in Indonesia ultimately gave in to recognize the Indonesian Red and White colored flag as the Indonesian national flag which was followed later by the recognition of the "Indonesia Raya" as Indonesia's National Anthem, and the "Bahasa Indonesia" as Indonesia's National Language.
After persistent demands by the Indonesians for complete Indonesianization of the Civil Administration in Indonesia, the demands were ultimately met the Japanese. This became Indonesia's basis to further build up the foundation for the proclamation of independence of the Republic of Indonesia.
Proclamation of independence …..sian insurrections, the Japanese occupation forces in Indonesia ultimately gave in to recognize the Indonesian Red and White colored flag as the Indonesian national flag which was followed later by the recognition of the "Indonesia Raya" as Indonesia's National Anthem, and the "Bahasa Indonesia" as Indonesia's National Language.

After persistent demands by the Indonesians for complete Indonesianization of the Civil Administration in Indonesia, the demands were ultimately met the Japanese. This became Indonesia's basis to further build up the foundation for the proclamation of independence of the Republic of Indonesia.

Proclamation of independence

The final defeat of Japan after the dropping of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki on the 6th and 9th of August 1945 prompted the Japanese to surrender unconditionally to the Allies. This constituted an ample opportunity for Ir. Soekarno and Dr. Mohammad Hatta to proclaim Indonesia's independence on the 17th of August 1945. The Republic of Indonesia came into being based on Pancasila under a constitution, with strong Presidential powers, a Parliament, Supreme Advisory Council, State Audit Board and a People's Consultative Assembly as the embodiment of people's sovereignty in free Indonesia, all of which were adopted on the 18th of August 1945. This 1945 Constitution is still in force up till now. The Red and White flag was officially accepted as the National Flag of Indonesian and the Bahasa Indonesia as the National Language. Ir. Soekarno was elected as the first Indonesian President and Dr. Mohammad Hatta as Vice-President. On the 5th of September 1945, a Presidential Cabinet was formed with President Soekarno as Premier.

Wars of Independence against the Dutch

Soon after the independence proclamation, British troops as a component of the Allied Forces landed in Indonesia with the task of disarming Japanese Forces in Indonesia. Dutch troops have meanwhile used this opportunity to also land in Indonesia however with a different purpose, i.e. to restore the Dutch East Indies. The Dutch were in the beginning aided by the British Forces under General Christson which was confirmed later by Lord Louis Mountbatten, British Commander of the Allied Forces in Southeast Asia and based in Burma, whereas the British Allied Forces' task was to be the repatriation of Allied Prisoners of War and Internees and the disarming and internment of Japanese troops in Indonesia.
Fierce fighting broke out in Surabaya on the 10th of November 1945 between the British troops and Indonesian armed volunteers, which culminated in "Allied Forces" attacks by battle ships, airplanes tanks and armored cars in which Brigadier Mallaby died. The newly recruited republican army was not yeat ready to face such an all-out attack by such superior and well-armed Allied Forces fresh from their victorious battle against Hitler's Nazi forces in Europe. The Indonesian Armed Forces therefore withdrew from urban battles and organized themselves into guerilla forces, which put heavy pressures on the invading troops. The newly Republican Armed Forces fought along with the people armed units. Meanwhile, Dutch troops, under the pretext of representing Allied Forces, grew in number and attacked Indonesian Republican strongholds twice in their military actions between 1945-1949.

During the 1948 Dutch military action against the Republic, the Indonesian Communist Party unilaterally proclaimed the "Indonesian People's Republic" in Madiun (East Java), armed themselves and began to attack republican forces, from the rear. Squeezed by Dutch forces and communist forces, the Indonesian people and the republican army fought their enemies back in two fronts.
Since its inception, Indonesia experienced threats from without and from within.

Diplomacy vis-à-vis Fighting

On the 11th of November 1945, Vice-President Hatta issued a Manifesto laying down the policy of peace with the whole world and the principle of good neighbor policy for the new Republic.
On the 14th of November 1945, the newly appointed Prime Minister, Sutan Sjahrir introduced a parliamentary system in the republic with political party representation.
On the 22nd of December 1945, Sutan Sjahrir announced Indonesia's acceptance of the British proposals to disarm and confine to internment camps, 25,000 Japanese troops within Indonesia's territory, which successfully carried out by the Indonesian National Army "TNI." On the 28th of April 1946, the transportation of the Japanese troops to be emigrated, took place from all places in Indonesia.
When fighting with Dutch troops continued, even in urban areas, including Jakarta, the seat of the Government was moved from Jakarta to Yogyakarta on 4th January 1946.

The Indonesian Question in the United Nations

Since the war in Indonesia dragged on which was considered as endangering the maintenance of international peace and security, in line with the principles of the United Nations as stipulated in Article 24 of its Charter, the question of Indonesia was officially brought before the Security Council by the Ukranian Soviet Socialist Republic. Soon afterwards the first official meeting of representatives of the Republic of Indonesia and the Netherlands took place on the 10th of February 1946, under the chairmanship of Sir Archibald Clark Kerr.
Besides Indonesian forces putting stiff resistance against Dutch military aggressions and therefore dragging the war, the Indonesian government also conducted diplomatic offensive against the Dutch.
With the good offices of Lord Killearn of Great Britain, Indonesia and Dutch representatives met and negotiated together at Linggarjati in West Java in which negotiations the Dutch were forced to recognize the "de facto" sovereignty of the Republic of Indonesia over the territories in Java, Sumatra and Madura. The Linggarjati

Agreement was initiated on the 15th of November 1946 and officially signed on the 25th of March 1947.
This agreement was in fact in violation of Indonesia's independence, which was proclaimed on the 17th of August 1945. Therefore, guerilla fighting continued putting heavy pressure on Dutch troops wherever they exercised their military operations.
The first Dutch military aggression was launched in July 1947, in which Dutch troops intensified from their urban military bases, their military aggression against Indonesia guerilla strongholds. This first military aggression was ended by the signing of the "Renville Agreement" on the 17th of January 1948, under the auspices of the United Nation's Security Council, initiated by representatives of India and Australia.
It was in September 1948 that Muso, leader of the Indonesia's Communist Party (PKI) led the communist coup and attacked the Indonesian Army from the back, but was finally defeated and killed.
On the 19th of December 1948, the Dutch, ignoring the Renville Agreement launched their second military aggression against the Republic and succeeded to penetrate into the then Republican capital, Yogyakarta, which resulted in the capture of President Soekarno, Vice-President Dr. Mohammad Hatta and other Republican leaders whom they interned on the island of Bangka, off the east coast of Sumatra.
The Indonesian Government still functioned under caretaker Syafruddin Prawiranegara who headed the Republican Emergency Government with headquarters in Bukittinggi, West Sumatra.
On the 20th of January 1949, initiated by Jawaharlal Nehru of India, 19 nations gathered in New Delhi at the Asian meeting which adopted a resolution submitted to the United Nations demanding the Dutch to surrender complete sovereignty to the Republic of Indonesia by 1st January 1950. It also demanded the Dutch to surrender all Indonesian prisoners and territories seized during their military actions to the Indonesian Republic.
On the 28th of January 1949, the UN Security Council adopted a resolution on a ceasefire, the release of republican leaders and their return to Yogyakarta.
On the 7th of May 1949, an agreement was signed between Indonesia's Emissary, Mohammad Roem and Dutch Emissary Van Royen calling for the end of hostilities, the restoration of the Indonesian Republican Government to Yogyakarta and the holding of further negotiations, under the auspices of a UN Commission at a Round Table Conference between Indonesia and the Dutch.

World Recognition of Indonesia's Sovereignty
Indonesian Representative Office in Colombo, Ceylon

On the 23rd of August 1949, the Round Table Conference was held in The Hague under the auspices of the United Nations. The conference was concluded on the 2nd of November 1949 in which an agreement was reached that Holland was to recognize the sovereignty of the Republic of Indonesia.
On the 27th of December 1949, the former territory of the Dutch East Indies ceased to exist and became the sovereign Federal Republic of Indonesia under a federal constitution based on a parliamentary system providing Cabinet responsibility of Parliament, while the sovereignty over Papua (former West New Guinea) was suspended till further negotiations between Indonesia and Holland. This issue had since become the source of perpetual conflict between the new Republic and Holland, which dragged on for more than 13 years. And since September 28, 1950, Indonesia became a member of the United Nations.